The Warren Court

President Dwight D. Eisenhower named a political rival, Governor Earl Warren of California, as chief justice [of the U.S. Supreme Court]. Warren had spent 23 years as a local prosecutor and state attorney general, and during his first term on the Court . . . he voted most of the time against criminal defendants and against people who claimed that their civil rights were being violated. But over the next 15 years, he became a champion of criminal defendants and civil rights plaintiffs, and the Warren Court is known for its expansive interpretation of the rights of both.

Impact of Warren Decisions

Judicial policy making in the area of criminal due process is most closely associated with Earl Warren’s tenure as U.S. chief justice (1953–69). Speaking of this era, Archibald Cox, a former solicitor general, said, “Never has there been such a thorough-going reform of criminal procedure within so short a time.” The Warren Court decisions were aimed primarily at changing the procedures followed by the states in dealing with criminal defendants.

“I challenge the warmest advocate for reconciliation to show a single advantage that this continent can reap by being connected with Great Britain. I repeat the challenge—not a single advantage is derived. Our corn will fetch its price in any market in Europe, and our imported goods must be paid for; buy them where we will.

But the injuries and disadvantages which we sustain by that connection are without number; and our duty to mankind at large, as well as to ourselves, instruct us to renounce the alliance: because any submission to, or dependence on Great Britain, tends directly to involve this continent in European wars and quarrels, and sets us at variance with nations who would otherwise seek our friendship, and against whom we have neither anger nor complaint.

As Europe is our market for trade, we ought to form no partial connection with any part of it. It is the true interest of America to steer clear of European contentions, which she never can do while, by her dependence on Britain, she is made the makeweight in the scale of British politics.

Europe is too thickly planted with kingdoms to be long at peace, and whenever a war breaks out between England and any foreign power, the trade of America goes to ruin because of her connection with Britain. The next war may not turn out like the last, and should it not, the advocates for reconciliation now will be wishing for separation then, because neutrality in that case would be a safer convoy than a man of war.

Everything that is right or reasonable pleads for separation. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, ’TIS TIME TO PART.”

. . . The terms of the loans will require the auto companies to demonstrate how they would become viable. They must pay back all their loans to the government, and show that their firms can . . . achieve a positive net worth. This . . . will require meaningful concessions from all involved in the auto industry—management, labor unions, creditors, bondholders, dealers, and suppliers.

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Congress approves and supports the determination of the President . . . to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression.

This excerpt is taken from the public domain.

Excerpt 1

A majority . . . may be regarded as a being whose opinions, and most frequently whose interests, are opposed to those of another being, which is styled a minority. If it be admitted that a man, possessing absolute power, may misuse that power by wronging his adversaries, why should a majority not be liable to the same reproach?

Excerpt 2

If there existed in America a class of citizens whom the . . . majority sought to deprive of exclusive privileges which they had possessed for ages . . . it is probable that the minority would be less ready to comply with its laws.

These excerpts are taken from the public domain.

• The U.S. House of Representatives is allowed a maximum of 435 members.

• Each state has at least one representative, regardless of population.

• The number of representatives each state has in the House is based on the results of the national census taken every ten years.

• Seats in the House of Representatives that are lost by states with decreased populations are reallocated to states that have increased populations.

• The number of House seats is automatically apportioned according to the census, with districts drawn by state legislatures.

• States are allowed to draw districts of varying size and shape.

• The U.S. House of Representatives is allowed a maximum of 435 members.

• Each state has at least one representative, regardless of population.

• The number of representatives each state has in the House is based on the results of the national census taken every ten years.

• Seats in the House of Representatives that are lost by states with decreased populations are reallocated to states that have increased populations.

• The number of House seats is automatically apportioned according to the census, with districts drawn by state legislatures.

• States are allowed to draw districts of varying size and shape.

For practical purposes, this was not the end of the voting rights struggle for African Americans. Because of widespread discrimination in some states, including the use of poll taxes, grandfather clauses, and literacy tests, African Americans were not assured full voting rights until President Lyndon Baines Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act in 1965.

The Federalist Papers were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to explain to the citizens of New York why the Constitution should be ratified. In Federalist No. 51, James Madison explained that the constitutional principle of separation of powers is necessary to keep government leaders from abusing their authority. He believed the separation of powers was the best way to prevent one branch of government from gaining too much power.

In 1929, the U.S. economy crashed. There is considerable debate among economists over how effective fiscal policy was in helping bring the United States out of the Great Depression that followed. According to one leading economist, fiscal policy worked when it was tried. However, the problem was that fiscal policy was unevenly and weakly applied.

This economist points to two instances when fiscal policy was effective. One was during the winter of 1933–1934. This is when the federal government established the Civil Works Administration (CWA). In the span of three months, more than four million people were put to work on projects such as improving roads.

Another effective use of fiscal policy was the payment of a veteran’s bonus. Six years after World War I ended in 1918, U.S. veterans of the recent war were promised a bonus. The bonus would be paid in 1945. However, in 1932, a “Bonus Army” marched in Washington, D.C., to demand payment early. Finally, in 1936, Congress paid the bonus. The average payment was 547 dollar, which is roughly equivalent to9,000 dollar in today’s dollars. Production and employment were stimulated by the money pumped into the economy as 3.2 million veterans spent their bonus.

In 2010, the Canadian gross domestic product (GDP) recovered from a decline that occurred in 2009. Though few industries experienced significant growth between 2008 and 2010, both the finance industry sector and the public administration sector gained 1% shares of the national GDP. The finance industry—including insurance, real estate, asset management, and consulting—comprised slightly more than one-fifth of the Canadian economy in 2010.

The other major players in the Canadian economy were the public sector, bringing in about 18% of the GDP; manufacturing, bringing in 13% of the GDP; and natural resource production, including agriculture, forestry, and energy, bringing in slightly less than 7% of the GDP. Wholesale sales, retail sales, and construction maintained a steady share of the economy at 6% each.

This excert is taken from the public domain.

In 2010, the Canadian gross domestic product (GDP) recovered from a decline that occurred in 2009. Though few industries experienced significant growth between 2008 and 2010, both the finance industry sector and the public administration sector gained 1% shares of the national GDP. The finance industry—including insurance, real estate, asset management, and consulting—comprised slightly more than one-fifth of the Canadian economy in 2010.

The other major players in the Canadian economy were the public sector, bringing in about 18% of the GDP; manufacturing, bringing in 13% of the GDP; and natural resource production, including agriculture, forestry, and energy, bringing in slightly less than 7% of the GDP. Wholesale sales, retail sales, and construction maintained a steady share of the economy at 6% each.

This excert is taken from the public domain.

In 2010, the Canadian gross domestic product (GDP) recovered from a decline that occurred in 2009. Though few industries experienced significant growth between 2008 and 2010, both the finance industry sector and the public administration sector gained 1% shares of the national GDP. The finance industry—including insurance, real estate, asset management, and consulting—comprised slightly more than one-fifth of the Canadian economy in 2010.

The other major players in the Canadian economy were the public sector, bringing in about 18% of the GDP; manufacturing, bringing in 13% of the GDP; and natural resource production, including agriculture, forestry, and energy, bringing in slightly less than 7% of the GDP. Wholesale sales, retail sales, and construction maintained a steady share of the economy at 6% each.

This excert is taken from the public domain.

Early in the war, France aided the American colonists in their struggle for independence by providing military supplies and loans. However, France did not send soldiers or ships into battle. France’s support deepened after American forces defeated the British in the October, 1777 Battle of Saratoga, proving that they were committed to victory and worthy of an official alliance.

King Louis XVI approved financial assistance to the American colonies only four days after it was requested by a delegation led by Benjamin Franklin. France signed the Treaty of Alliance with the Americans in February of 1778. During the conflict, France committed an estimated 12,000 soldiers and 32,000 sailors to the American war effort. Without French help, the American struggle for independence would have been an even longer and more difficult ordeal.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture Risk Management Agency oversees the Commodity Insurance program. This program offers farmers a variety of forms of insurance. One form is known as the Revenue Protection Plan. This plan protects farmers against losing income due to falling prices or crop failures.

Under this plan, a farmer may choose to purchase insurance to guarantee revenue of at least 75% of the Actual Production History of the farm. The insurance on some crops, such as corn, is subsidized by the federal government at a much higher rate than most other crops. The insurance rates vary depending on the type of crop grown.

The USDA also has several agencies devoted to research. The Economic Research Service compiles data about the total profits earned by U.S. farms. It measures the total income earned by farms and the total costs of production. Generally, both figures have increased over the past 10 years.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture Risk Management Agency oversees the Commodity Insurance program. This program offers farmers a variety of forms of insurance. One form is known as the Revenue Protection Plan. This plan protects farmers against losing income due to falling prices or crop failures.

Under this plan, a farmer may choose to purchase insurance to guarantee revenue of at least 75% of the Actual Production History of the farm. The insurance on some crops, such as corn, is subsidized by the federal government at a much higher rate than most other crops. The insurance rates vary depending on the type of crop grown.

The USDA also has several agencies devoted to research. The Economic Research Service compiles data about the total profits earned by U.S. farms. It measures the total income earned by farms and the total costs of production. Generally, both figures have increased over the past 10 years.

Virginians George Mason … was one of three delegates to the Constitutional Convention who had refused to sign the final document because it did not [guarantee] individual rights. Together with Patrick Henry, he campaigned vigorously against ratification of the Constitution by Virginia …

[F]ive states, including Massachusetts, ratified the Constitution on the condition that such amendments be added immediately. When the first Congress [met] in New York City in September 1789, the calls for amendments protecting individual rights were [almost] unanimous …

[B]y December 1791, enough states had ratified 10 amendments to make them part of the Constitution. Collectively, [these amendments] are known as the Bill of Rights.

In a message delivered to Congress in early 1918, President Wilson presented a program of fourteen points. Eight of the fourteen points addressed specific territorial issues among enemy nations. Five of the other six concerned general principles for a peaceful world: open treaties or agreements, freedom of the seas, free trade, reduction of weapons, and the adjustment of colonial claims based on the principles of self-determination. The fourteenth point proposed what was to become the League of Nations.

U.S. presidential candidates receive financial contributions from many different sources. For the 2012 election cycle, political parties reported contributions of 34.75 million dollar to all candidates. Political action committees, groups that raise money to give to campaigns, reported contributions of 1.7 million dollar to all candidates. Candidates personally contributed 5.8 million dollar to their own campaigns. Additionally, the Presidential Election Campaign Fund, to which citizens may contribute by checking a box on their federal tax forms, gave 1.3 million dollar to all candidates. The remainder came from individual contributions as shown in the table.

The Roman Republic was founded in 509 BCE and lasted for almost 500 years. The pillars of its republic were the consuls and magistrates, the Senate, and the Popular Assemblies.

Two leaders (called consuls) were elected by the Senate, and they served for one year each. Each consul could veto acts of the other. They were responsible for the conduct of war, finances, and the judiciary. Although powerful, the consuls governed with the advice of the Senate. The magistrates served as public officials in the executive branch of the government and were elected to terms with defined limits.

The Senate consisted of heads of clans and former consuls, and members served for life. Besides electing and advising consuls, the Senate’s role was to enact “decrees of the Senate.” These decrees did not have formal authority but were often considered in legal cases.

The common people also formed the Popular Assemblies, where they approved laws proposed by magistrates. The common people in the assemblies voted for tribunes who had the power to support or reject laws, senatorial decrees, and election results. Tribunes served one-year terms.

What does the word “sustainability” mean? “Sustainability” means using natural resources responsibly so that they are available to future generations. Sustainability seeks to balance economic, environmental, and societal challenges and opportunities.

For example, to achieve sustainability a business will not view profit only in terms of dollars. Energy companies will ask what impact their operation has on humans, wildlife, land, and water. The ill-advised rush to extract new discoveries of shale oil and natural gas is a case in point. These resources will earn millions of dollars and create many jobs. However, if the result is polluted water and ghost towns, it is not a sustainable model.

“[W]e in this century have too casually and too long abused our natural environment. . . .

The fight against pollution is not a search for villains. For the most part, the damage done to our environment has not been the work of evil men, nor has it been the inevitable by-product either of advancing technology or of growing population. It results not so much from choices made, as from choices neglected; not from [evil] intention, but from failure to take into account the full consequences of our actions. . . .

The tasks that need doing . . . call for fundamentally new philosophies of land, air and water use, for stricter regulation, for expanded government action, for greater citizen involvement, and for new programs to ensure that government, industry and individuals are all called on to do their share of the job and to pay their share of the cost. . . .”

The percentage of registered voters identifying with political parties is declining. If current trends continue, half of American voters could identify as politically independent within the next decade.

This change has been influenced by an information revolution that includes 24-hour television news channels and near universal access to the Internet. Easy access to news and diverse opinions has freed voters from a reliance on parties for political education. Moreover, voters no longer need political parties to vouch for the good reputation of candidates. Voters can make judgments based on candidate media appearances and broadcast stories.

Similarly, candidates no longer rely on the party to communicate with voters or to ask for campaign contributions. Every major modern campaign includes television ads and Internet sites focused on the candidate’s message and raising money.

Year	Democrats	Republicans	Divided
2009	27	14	8
2010	27	14	8
2011	16	25	8
2012	15	27	7
2013	19	26	4
2014	17	29	3
2015	11	30	8

Excerpt 1:
“For the first time in U.S. history, the federal government will force you to purchase health insurance.”

Excerpt 2:
“Like other areas of the economy where the federal government wields its heavy hand, health care is overregulated and in need of serious market reforms. But many see an expansion of government as the solution to this problem…”

Excerpt 3:
“When people blame the current crisis on the free market, they are making a grave intellectual error. We have not even remotely tried a free market in health care. We put layer upon layer of rules and mandates on companies. We limit the choices available to consumers.”

Excerpt 4:
“The solutions we seek to our health care problems should therefore offer more freedom, not less.”

Excerpt 5:
“…Earlier today, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act… [T]oday’s decision was a victory for people all over this country whose lives will be more secure because of this law and the Supreme Court’s decision to uphold it.”

Excerpt 6:
“Each state will take the lead in designing [its] own menu of [health care] options, and if states can come up with even better ways of covering more people at the same quality and cost, this law allows them to do that, too.”

Excerpt 7:
“That’s why … we ultimately included a provision in the Affordable Care Act that people who can afford to buy health insurance should take the responsibility to do so.”

Excerpt 8:
“I did it because I believed it was good for the country. I did it because I believed it was good for the American people.”

Excerpt 1:
“For the first time in U.S. history, the federal government will force you to purchase health insurance.”

Excerpt 2:
“Like other areas of the economy where the federal government wields its heavy hand, health care is overregulated and in need of serious market reforms. But many see an expansion of government as the solution to this problem…”

Excerpt 3:
“When people blame the current crisis on the free market, they are making a grave intellectual error. We have not even remotely tried a free market in health care. We put layer upon layer of rules and mandates on companies. We limit the choices available to consumers.”

Excerpt 4:
“The solutions we seek to our health care problems should therefore offer more freedom, not less.”

Excerpt 5:
“…Earlier today, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act… [T]oday’s decision was a victory for people all over this country whose lives will be more secure because of this law and the Supreme Court’s decision to uphold it.”

Excerpt 6:
“Each state will take the lead in designing [its] own menu of [health care] options, and if states can come up with even better ways of covering more people at the same quality and cost, this law allows them to do that, too.”

Excerpt 7:
“That’s why … we ultimately included a provision in the Affordable Care Act that people who can afford to buy health insurance should take the responsibility to do so.”

Excerpt 8:
“I did it because I believed it was good for the country. I did it because I believed it was good for the American people.”

Year	Number
2006	1,266,129
2007	1,052,415
2008	1,107,126
2009	1,130,818
2010	1,042,625

“I need not remind my colleagues that education is one of, if not the, top priority of the American people… Many proposals that claim to increase local control over education actually extend federal power by holding schools ‘accountable’ to federal bureaucrats and politicians. Of course, schools should be held accountable for their results, but under the United States Constitution, they should be held accountable to parents and school boards not to federal officials.”

“We believe that it is important to have a high-quality education if one is going to succeed in the 21st century… The philosophy behind the law is pretty straightforward… In exchange for federal dollars… we expect results. We’re spending money on schools, and shouldn’t we determine whether or not the money we’re spending is yielding the results society expects?”

“I need not remind my colleagues that education is one of, if not the, top priority of the American people… Many proposals that claim to increase local control over education actually extend federal power by holding schools ‘accountable’ to federal bureaucrats and politicians. Of course, schools should be held accountable for their results, but under the United States Constitution, they should be held accountable to parents and school boards not to federal officials.”

“We believe that it is important to have a high-quality education if one is going to succeed in the 21st century… The philosophy behind the law is pretty straightforward… In exchange for federal dollars… we expect results. We’re spending money on schools, and shouldn’t we determine whether or not the money we’re spending is yielding the results society expects?”

“I need not remind my colleagues that education is one of, if not the, top priority of the American people… Many proposals that claim to increase local control over education actually extend federal power by holding schools ‘accountable’ to federal bureaucrats and politicians. Of course, schools should be held accountable for their results, but under the United States Constitution, they should be held accountable to parents and school boards not to federal officials.”

“We believe that it is important to have a high-quality education if one is going to succeed in the 21st century… The philosophy behind the law is pretty straightforward… In exchange for federal dollars… we expect results. We’re spending money on schools, and shouldn’t we determine whether or not the money we’re spending is yielding the results society expects?”

“I need not remind my colleagues that education is one of, if not the, top priority of the American people… Many proposals that claim to increase local control over education actually extend federal power by holding schools ‘accountable’ to federal bureaucrats and politicians. Of course, schools should be held accountable for their results, but under the United States Constitution, they should be held accountable to parents and school boards not to federal officials.”

“We believe that it is important to have a high-quality education if one is going to succeed in the 21st century… The philosophy behind the law is pretty straightforward… In exchange for federal dollars… we expect results. We’re spending money on schools, and shouldn’t we determine whether or not the money we’re spending is yielding the results society expects?”

Political Party	Senate	House of Representatives
Democrats	51	198
Republicans	47	241
Independents	2	—

“A Law [opposed] to the Constitution is void.” With these words written by Chief Justice Marshall, the Supreme Court for the first time declared unconstitutional a law passed by Congress and signed by the President. Nothing in the Constitution gave the Court this specific power. Marshall, however, believed that the Supreme Court should have a role equal to those of the other two branches of government.

When James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay wrote a defense of the Constitution in The Federalist, they explained: “You must first enable government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself.”

“…The Constitution gave Congress the power to . . . remove officials, including judges or the President himself. The President was given the veto power to restrain Congress and the authority to appoint members of the Supreme Court. . . . [T]he role of the Supreme Court had not been defined. It therefore fell to a strong Chief Justice like Marshall to complete the triangular structure of checks and balances by establishing the principle of judicial review.”

The framers of the U.S. Constitution divided war powers between Congress and the president. Congress has the power to declare war and to create and fund the military. The president, as commander in chief, has the power to command and control U.S. military forces.

In 1950, President Harry Truman deployed U.S. troops in South Korea as part of a United Nations military force. President Truman referred to the Korean War as a “police action” meant to uphold the rule of law. He never asked Congress for a declaration of war and one was never delivered. Later, as a result of the Vietnam War, Congress passed legislation requiring the president to withdraw troops from combat within 60 days if Congress has not declared war or approved the use of force.

Nevertheless, while Congress and the president continue to argue over war powers, the division of these powers in the U.S. Constitution remains unchanged.

The Indian territory is admitted to compose a part of the United States. . . . They acknowledge themselves in their treaties to be under the protection of the United States; they admit that the United States shall have the sole and exclusive right of regulating the trade with them, and managing all their affairs as they think proper. . . . Treaties were made with some tribes . . . by which they ceded all their lands . . . [and] they admit their dependence.

They look to our government for protection; rely upon its kindness and its power . . . and address the president as their great father.

. . . [T]he Cherokee nation . . . retains its usages and customs and self government, greatly improved by the civilization which it has been the policy of the United States to encourage and foster among them.

This excerpt is taken from the public domain.

To cast this case into outlines of racial prejudice, without reference to the real military dangers which were presented, merely confuses the issue. Korematsu was not excluded from the Military Area because of hostility to him or his race. He was excluded because we are at war with the Japanese Empire, because the properly constituted military authorities feared an invasion of our West Coast and felt constrained to take proper security measures. . . . There was evidence of disloyalty on the part of some, the military authorities considered that the need for action was great, and time was short. We cannot—by availing ourselves of the calm perspective of hindsight—now say that, at that time, these actions were unjustified.

I dissent, therefore, from this legalization of racism. Racial discrimination in any form and in any degree has no justifiable part whatever in our democratic way of life. It is unattractive in any setting, but it is utterly revolting among a free people who have embraced the principles set forth in the Constitution of the United States. All residents of this nation are kin in some way by blood or culture to a foreign land. Yet they are primarily and necessarily a part of the new and distinct civilization of the United States. They must, accordingly, be treated at all times as the heirs of the American experiment, and as entitled to all the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution.

All persons born or naturalized in the United States . . . are citizens of the United States. . . . No state shall make or enforce any law which . . . [denies] equal protection of the laws.

I recognize the right and duty of this generation to develop and use the natural resources of our land; but I do not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob, by wasteful use, the generations that come after us. . . .

Moreover, I believe that the natural resources must be used for the benefit of all our people, and not monopolized for the benefit of the few. . . . Of all the questions which can come before this nation, short of the actual preservation of its existence in a great war, there is none which compares in importance with the great central task of leaving this land even a better land for our descendants than it is for us, and training them into a better race to inhabit the land and pass it on. Conservation is a great moral issue, for it involves the patriotic duty of insuring the safety and continuance of the nation. . . .

Oil Production:

January was the seventh consecutive month in which monthly average North Sea crude oil prices decreased, reaching 48 dollars per barrel, the lowest since March 2009. The price decline reflects continued growth in U.S. oil production and strong global supply, amid weaker global oil demand growth. This contributed to rising global oil inventories. In January, estimated total commercial oil inventories reached their highest level since August 2010.

Gasoline Prices:

Driven largely by falling crude oil prices, U.S. weekly regular gasoline retail prices averaged 2.04 dollars per gallon on January 26, the lowest since April 6, 2009. EIA expects U.S. regular gasoline retail prices, which averaged 3.36 dollars per gallon in 2014, to average 2.33 dollars per gallon in 2015. The average household is now expected to spend about 750 dollars less for gasoline in 2015 compared with last year because of lower prices. The projected regular gasoline retail price increases to an average of 2.73 dollars per gallon in 2016.

1. I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of democracy.

2. At times history and fate meet at a single time in a single place to shape a turning point in man’s unending search for freedom. . . . So it was a century ago at Appomattox. So it is tonight in Selma, Alabama.

3. There, long-suffering men and women peacefully protested the denial of their rights as Americans. Many were brutally assaulted. . . .

4. There is no constitutional issue here. The command of the Constitution is plain.

5. There is no moral issue. It is wrong, deadly wrong, to deny any of your fellow Americans the right to vote in this country.

6. There is no issue of States’ rights or national rights. There is only the struggle for human rights. . . .

7. We cannot . . . refuse to protect the right of every American to vote in every election that he may desire to participate in. . . .

8. But even if we pass this bill, the battle will not be over. . . .

9. Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice.

10. And we shall overcome. . . .

11. This great, rich, restless country can offer opportunity and education and hope to all: black and white, North and South, sharecropper and city dweller. These are the enemies: poverty, ignorance, disease. They are the enemies and not our fellow man, not our neighbor. And these enemies too, poverty, ignorance, we shall overcome.
    This excerpt is from a telegram Senator Richard Russell of Georgia sent to President Dwight Eisenhower in 1957.

12. “. . . As a citizen, as a senator of the United States, and as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, I must vigorously protest the highhanded and illegal methods being employed by the armed forces of the United States under your command who are carrying out your orders to mix the races in the public schools of Little Rock, Arkansas.”

1. I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of democracy.

2. At times history and fate meet at a single time in a single place to shape a turning point in man’s unending search for freedom. . . . So it was a century ago at Appomattox. So it is tonight in Selma, Alabama.

3. There, long-suffering men and women peacefully protested the denial of their rights as Americans. Many were brutally assaulted. . . .

4. There is no constitutional issue here. The command of the Constitution is plain.

5. There is no moral issue. It is wrong, deadly wrong, to deny any of your fellow Americans the right to vote in this country.

6. There is no issue of States’ rights or national rights. There is only the struggle for human rights. . . .

7. We cannot . . . refuse to protect the right of every American to vote in every election that he may desire to participate in. . . .

8. But even if we pass this bill, the battle will not be over. . . .

9. Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice.

10. And we shall overcome. . . .

11. This great, rich, restless country can offer opportunity and education and hope to all: black and white, North and South, sharecropper and city dweller. These are the enemies: poverty, ignorance, disease. They are the enemies and not our fellow man, not our neighbor. And these enemies too, poverty, ignorance, we shall overcome.
    This excerpt is from a telegram Senator Richard Russell of Georgia sent to President Dwight Eisenhower in 1957.

12. “. . . As a citizen, as a senator of the United States, and as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, I must vigorously protest the highhanded and illegal methods being employed by the armed forces of the United States under your command who are carrying out your orders to mix the races in the public schools of Little Rock, Arkansas.”

1. I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of democracy.

2. At times history and fate meet at a single time in a single place to shape a turning point in man’s unending search for freedom. . . . So it was a century ago at Appomattox. So it is tonight in Selma, Alabama.

3. There, long-suffering men and women peacefully protested the denial of their rights as Americans. Many were brutally assaulted. . . .

4. There is no constitutional issue here. The command of the Constitution is plain.

5. There is no moral issue. It is wrong, deadly wrong, to deny any of your fellow Americans the right to vote in this country.

6. There is no issue of States’ rights or national rights. There is only the struggle for human rights. . . .

7. We cannot . . . refuse to protect the right of every American to vote in every election that he may desire to participate in. . . .

8. But even if we pass this bill, the battle will not be over. . . .

9. Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice.

10. And we shall overcome. . . .

11. This great, rich, restless country can offer opportunity and education and hope to all: black and white, North and South, sharecropper and city dweller. These are the enemies: poverty, ignorance, disease. They are the enemies and not our fellow man, not our neighbor. And these enemies too, poverty, ignorance, we shall overcome.
    This excerpt is from a telegram Senator Richard Russell of Georgia sent to President Dwight Eisenhower in 1957.

12. “. . . As a citizen, as a senator of the United States, and as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, I must vigorously protest the highhanded and illegal methods being employed by the armed forces of the United States under your command who are carrying out your orders to mix the races in the public schools of Little Rock, Arkansas.”

1st Amendment:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

6th Amendment:
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed . . .

8th Amendment:
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

14th Amendment:
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law . . .

The U.S. government needs to invest more money in roads, bridges, water systems, electrical supply networks, and telecommunications. Years of neglect have led to crumbling roads and bridges. Many improvements are needed to bring our infrastructure up to basic safety standards. The government has an obligation to provide for the safety of citizens. Only government is in a position to design projects that benefit us all. Investment in infrastructure provides jobs for citizens in the short term, and ensures a long-term basis for economic growth.

The U.S. government now has the largest debt in its history. This liability is the result of massive and reckless spending. Grand government infrastructure projects most often result in wasteful and dishonest use of public funds. Tax money used for such projects should be left in the pockets of working citizens who know best how to spend their own hard-earned money. Government has a duty to current taxpayers and to future generations to reduce spending and debt. This is the real path to economic growth and financial security.

In order to avoid factions, the Constitution grants political parties no role in [government]. Ironically, political factions sprang up right away to support the Constitution and to oppose it. By the presidential election of 1796, political parties were . . . in place in America. . . .

Today the party system seems firmly entrenched. Some Americans might argue that there is no real difference between the ideals and political stance of today’s parties. Other Americans routinely vote a “party ticket” in their belief that a particular political party will best represent their wishes for governing the nation.

Excerpt 1:

A majority . . . may be regarded as a being whose opinions, and most frequently whose interests, are opposed to those of another being, which is styled a minority. If it be admitted that a man, possessing absolute power, may misuse that power by wronging his adversaries, why should a majority not be liable to the same reproach?

Excerpt 2:

If there existed in America a class of citizens whom the . . . majority sought to deprive of exclusive privileges which they had possessed for ages . . . it is probable that the minority would be less ready to comply with its laws.

These excerpts are taken from the public domain.

In 2012 workers at the National Archives preparing an exhibition of the records of immigrants discovered a 1951 document concerning teenaged Holocaust survivor Michael Pupa. Michael, whose parents died in the Holocaust, was one of many war orphans who came to the United States following World War II. Because of relief efforts made by the United Nations (UN) after the war, Pupa became a U.S. citizen in 1957.

These relief efforts were the result of the humanitarian crisis the United States and its allies faced after World War II. Millions of persons who had been forced to leave their homes needed to be resettled. The United States heavily supported and funded the creation of the International Refugee Organization (IRO) in 1946 by the United Nations, which was founded a year earlier.

Michael Pupa arrived in the United States in May of 1951. After living for six months in a United Nations home for refugee children, he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where he was raised by a foster family and began his life as an American.

In 1781, the 13 former British American colonies established a common government when they ratified the Articles of Confederation. The document established a “firm league of friendship” between the states and reserved the greatest share of political authority to the individual states. The new confederation had only one branch, which was made up of a one-house legislature in which the states were equally represented. Among other powers, the new government had the power to conduct foreign affairs for the 13 independent states. It had the power to make war and peace and to negotiate treaties with foreign countries. It could also settle disputes between the states, including disputes over western territories. Each of the states retained their “sovereignty, freedom and independence.” Under the Articles, Congress could not collect taxes, regulate trade between states, or enforce laws. The confederation was replaced in 1787 by the government created by the U.S. Constitution.

Nor will it become in a less degree my duty to . . . maintain by all constitutional means the right of the United States to that portion of our territory which lies beyond the Rocky Mountains. Our title to . . . Oregon is “clear and unquestionable,” and already are our people preparing to perfect that title by occupying it with their wives and children . . . . [O]ur people . . . have filled the eastern valley of the Mississippi, . . . ascended the Missouri to its headsprings, and are already engaged in establishing the blessings of self-government in valleys of which the rivers flow to the Pacific. . . . To us belongs the duty of protecting them adequately wherever they may be upon our soil. The jurisdiction of our laws and the benefits of our republican institutions should be extended over them in the distant regions which they have selected for their homes.

The Americanization movement had its primary, or immediate, origin in 1914 when . . . a renaissance of nationalism occurred throughout the civilized world. . . .

Americanization begins with an examination of American traits and ends with . . . an assimilation movement. . . . We may consider the Mayflower Compact as the initial statement of Americanism . . . and Theodore Roosevelt’s and Woodrow Wilson’s recent addresses as modern revisions. . . .

Our national purpose must be clearly stated, taught to our people, and accepted throughout the land. . . . It will be necessary continually to shun . . . autocracy, imperialism, ambition for world domination, [and] injustice in dealing with weak nations, classes, or persons.

[The United States] must transform her imperfect democracy, not into another strong nation-state . . . but into a perfected democracy dedicated to the task of pushing forward the principles of democracy throughout the world.

The interaction between the buyers and sellers of a good or service is called a market. Two important economic markets are factor markets and product markets.

The factor market refers to the buying and selling of the factors of production. The factors of production (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship) are the resources used to produce goods and services.

Producers offer goods and services for sale in product markets. Individuals spend the money they have earned in the factor market (for instance, wages or the income from selling land) to make purchases in product markets.

1- Shortly after World War II, many changes led to the development of suburbs. Men returned home from military service, got married, and started families. They needed housing. William Levitt, an entrepreneur, started building look-alike houses in developments in rural areas using assembly-line techniques. His first site, located in Nassau County, New York, is now called Levittown.

2- William and his brother Alfred first gained experience in assembly-line techniques while building government housing for defense workers during World War II. After the war, the Levitts acted on the belief that many veterans would want to work in the city while living in rural areas. They bought 1,000 acres of Long Island farmland 25 miles east of Manhattan. In 1947, they began construction on the first part of what would eventually be 17,000 houses.

3- The operation was organized so that houses could be mass-produced. At a 20-acre facility on-site, cement was mixed and lumber cut. Carpenters, roofers, and tile layers worked in waves. There was even one team of painters for red and another for white. The Levitt brothers owned a forest, a saw mill, and a nail-making factory. This use of vertical integration, along with buying appliances directly from manufacturers, helped them to keep costs down and maximize their profits. Houses sold for $8,000, which resulted in a $1,000 profit per house for the builders.

4- Even so, the success of Levittown depended not only on the efficiency of the Levitt brothers’ process but also on the Federal Housing Administration, which guaranteed bank loans to builders. Moreover, a separate government program made low-interest mortgage loans available to returning military personnel. With this financing in place, more homes could be built and more veterans could afford to buy them. Thus, much of the baby-boom generation had well-constructed homes in which to grow up.

1- Shortly after World War II, many changes led to the development of suburbs. Men returned home from military service, got married, and started families. They needed housing. William Levitt, an entrepreneur, started building look-alike houses in developments in rural areas using assembly-line techniques. His first site, located in Nassau County, New York, is now called Levittown.

2- William and his brother Alfred first gained experience in assembly-line techniques while building government housing for defense workers during World War II. After the war, the Levitts acted on the belief that many veterans would want to work in the city while living in rural areas. They bought 1,000 acres of Long Island farmland 25 miles east of Manhattan. In 1947, they began construction on the first part of what would eventually be 17,000 houses.

3- The operation was organized so that houses could be mass-produced. At a 20-acre facility on-site, cement was mixed and lumber cut. Carpenters, roofers, and tile layers worked in waves. There was even one team of painters for red and another for white. The Levitt brothers owned a forest, a saw mill, and a nail-making factory. This use of vertical integration, along with buying appliances directly from manufacturers, helped them to keep costs down and maximize their profits. Houses sold for 8,000 dollars, which resulted in a 1,000 dollars profit per house for the builders.

4- Even so, the success of Levittown depended not only on the efficiency of the Levitt brothers’ process but also on the Federal Housing Administration, which guaranteed bank loans to builders. Moreover, a separate government program made low-interest mortgage loans available to returning military personnel. With this financing in place, more homes could be built and more veterans could afford to buy them. Thus, much of the baby-boom generation had well-constructed homes in which to grow up.

The struggle for woman suffrage began in the colonial era. Abigail Adams urged her husband John to “remember the ladies” prior to the writing of the Declaration of Independence. As the country expanded westward, women worked alongside men. The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention produced the “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions,” a document modeled on the Declaration of Independence and calling for women to be granted the same civil and political rights as those of American men. As abolition became a political issue in the mid-nineteenth century, many women joined the abolitionist movement. Upon the ratification of the Civil War Amendments, women anticipated that gender would no longer prevent their casting ballots in national elections. However, passage of a woman suffrage amendment was delayed until after World War I, during which women’s work to support the war effort was greatly admired. Finally, in 1920, ratification of the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote.

Race/Ethnicity	2000 Population	2010 Population	Percent Change, 2000 to 2010
White	211,460,626	223,553,265	5.7%
Black or African American	34,658,190	38,929,319	12.3%
American Indian and Alaska Native	2,475,956	2,932,248	18.4%
Asian	10,242,998	14,674,252	43.3%
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander	398,835	540,013	35.4%
Some other race	15,359,073	19,107,368	24.4%
Two or more races	6,826,228	9,009,073	32.0%
Total Population	281,421,906	308,745,538	9.7%

State	Republican %	Southern Democratic %
New Jersey	36	30
New York	35	35
Pennsylvania	39	30
Rhode Island	48	20
South Carolina	19	60
Texas	17	59

This excerpt is from a 2017 speech by U.S. Representative Jim McGovern.

It’s been seven years since the dreadful Citizens United ruling. In upholding the rights of corporations to donate to political campaigns under the First Amendment, the Supreme Court created an election system that is now corrupted by limitless, unregulated donations. Ordinary citizens are left powerless and politicians are increasingly beholden to wealthy special interests.

Since Citizens United, we’ve seen a major telecommunications company, oil companies, and the tobacco industry all attempt to dismantle regulations and disclosure rules by claiming First Amendment rights. . . .

[C]orporations are not people. The Constitution was never intended to give corporations the same rights as the American people. Corporations don’t breathe. They don’t have kids. They don’t die in wars.

The preamble to the Constitution is “We the People,” not “we the Corporations.”

This excerpt is from a 2017 press release from U.S. Representative Joe Crowley.

Reversing . . . Citizens United will help restore and protect the integrity of our electoral process—one of the pillars of our nation’s democracy. The voices of corporations, special interest groups and the wealthy should not drown out the voices of everyday Americans. It’s high time we get money out of politics and . . . advance the basic principle of one voice, one vote that is so integral to our democracy.

In Martin Luther King, Jr.’s 1963 “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” King responded to clergymen who criticized him for leading demonstrations. King discussed the need to cause “constructive tension” in the form of peaceful protests to influence government leaders.

Name	Total Number of Vetoes	Terms of Office
Franklin D. Roosevelt	635	4
Harry S. Truman	250	2
Dwight D. Eisenhower	181	2
John F. Kennedy	21	1
Lyndon B. Johnson	30	2
Richard M. Nixon	43	2
Gerald R. Ford	66	1
James E. Carter	31	1
Ronald W. Reagan	78	2
George H.W. Bush	44	1
William J. Clinton	37	2
George W. Bush	12	2

The expedition of Messrs. Lewis and [Clark], for exploring the river Missouri, and the best communication from that to the Pacific ocean, has had all the success which could have been expected. They have traced the Missouri nearly to its source, descended the Columbia to the Pacific ocean, ascertained with accuracy the geography of that interesting communication across our continent, learned the character of the country, of its commerce, and inhabitants; and it is but justice to say that Messrs. Lewis and [Clark], and their brave companions, have by this arduous service deserved well of their country.

Ms. Ramos wants to increase the productivity of her bicycle parts factory. She has closely observed her employees at work and their output over the last six months. As a result, she has noticed some trends.

“New York Province was originally peopled by the Hollanders, but was given up to Britain, about one hundred years since, from which period it has enjoyed, uninterrupted peace and happiness. At present two thirds of the Inhabitants, as well in the Province as in the Town, are Descended of the Dutch and Germans….

The City of New York has long been held at home, the first in America, tho’ it neither comes up to Philadelphia in Beauty, regularity, Size, or the Number of its Inhabitants, and houses of the last; there are under three thousand at this time, about 300 Stores, 12 Churches and places of Worship and perhaps 20,000 Inhabitants,—here are more Negroes than in any Northern province, and by being the Seat of Government, Civil and Military, and the place to which all the money for the Exigencies [urgent needs] of America is sent.”

The experience of living under British rule greatly influenced American attitudes about government. By the time the Declaration of Independence was issued, American colonists had suffered years of abuses from British authorities. On multiple occasions, they had petitioned the British Crown about their concerns. These appeals had been generally ignored. For example, when the Olive Branch Petition was sent to London by the Second Continental Congress, the king refused to read it, bringing the American colonies one step closer to war with England.

The U.S. Constitution outlined the powers of a strong national government, but only the promise of a bill of rights assured its adoption. Despite the Constitution’s ratification, states—fearful for their power—continued to challenge the supremacy of the national government. Recalling memories of the Articles of Confederation, the Kentucky Resolutions argued that state actions were superior to acts of the national government. It is no wonder that the Articles of Confederation, adopted during a war against a feared and despised central authority, created a feeble national government.

“…[P]rovisions of the bill… will result in an election finance system that encourages greater individual participation, and provides the public more accurate and timely information. … All of the American electorate will benefit from these measures to strengthen our democracy.

However, the bill does have flaws. … In particular, [it] goes farther than I originally proposed by preventing all individuals, not just unions and corporations, from making donations to political parties. …

I believe individual freedom to participate in elections should be expanded, not diminished; and when individual freedoms are restricted, questions arise under the First Amendment. …

But it does represent progress. … Taken as a whole, this bill improves the current system of financing for Federal campaigns, and therefore I have signed it into law.”

Year	Percentage*
1975	10%
1985	9%
1995	14%
2005	19%
2015	22%

“I do not believe that the meaning of the Constitution was forever ‘fixed’ at the Philadelphia Convention. Nor do I find the wisdom, foresight, and sense of justice exhibited by the Framers particularly profound. To the contrary, the government they devised was defective from the start, requiring several amendments, a civil war, and momentous social transformation to attain the system of constitutional government, and its respect for the individual freedoms and human rights, we hold as fundamental today. When contemporary Americans cite ‘The Constitution,’ they invoke a concept that is vastly different from what the Framers barely began to construct two centuries ago. … When the Founding Fathers used this phrase [We, the People] in 1787, they did not have in mind the majority of America’s citizens. ‘We the People’ included, in the words of the Framers, ‘the whole Number of free Persons.’”

“In a very real sense, it was then, in 1787, that the Revolution truly began. For it was with the writing of our Constitution, setting down the architecture of democratic government, that the noble sentiments and brave rhetoric of 1776 took on substance. …

All men are created equal and endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights—until that moment some might have said that was just a high-sounding sentiment, the dreams of a few philosophers and the hot-headed followers. But you could one really construct a government, run a country, with such idealistic notions? But once those ideas took root in functioning institutions, once those notions became a nation—well, then, as I said, the revolution could really begin, not just in America but around the world, a revolution to free man from tyranny of every sort and secure his freedom the only way possible in this world, through the checks and balances and institutions of limited, democratic government.”

1
But the war is being fought on the home front as well as abroad. While all of us are deeply proud of the military conduct of the war, can we honestly say that the home front could not bear improvement? The present administration in Washington has been in office for more than 11 years. Today, it is at war with Congress, and at war with itself…

2
Does anyone suggest that the present national administration is giving either efficient or competent government? We have not heard that claim made, even by its most fanatical supporters. No, all they tell us is that in its young days it did some good things. That we freely grant. But now it has grown old in office. It has become tired and quarrelsome. It seems that the great men who founded this nation really did know what they were talking about when they said that three terms were too many…

1
But the war is being fought on the home front as well as abroad. While all of us are deeply proud of the military conduct of the war, can we honestly say that the home front could not bear improvement? The present administration in Washington has been in office for more than 11 years. Today, it is at war with Congress, and at war with itself…

2
Does anyone suggest that the present national administration is giving either efficient or competent government? We have not heard that claim made, even by its most fanatical supporters. No, all they tell us is that in its young days it did some good things. That we freely grant. But now it has grown old in office. It has become tired and quarrelsome. It seems that the great men who founded this nation really did know what they were talking about when they said that three terms were too many…

The Federalist Papers were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to explain to the citizens of New York why the Constitution should be ratified. In Federalist No. 51, James Madison explained that the constitutional principle of separation of powers is necessary to keep government leaders from abusing their authority. He believed the separation of powers was the best way to prevent one branch of government from gaining too much power.

1. The U.S. Constitution authorizes the president to appoint federal judges with the “Advice and Consent” of the Senate.

2. Historically, the Senate fulfilled this duty as a matter of routine, and most appointees were confirmed without incident.

3. However, in recent years, the Senate leadership has begun to abuse its power.

In 1929, the U.S. economy crashed. There is considerable debate among economists over how effective fiscal policy was in helping bring the United States out of the Great Depression that followed. According to one leading economist, fiscal policy worked when it was tried. However, the problem was that fiscal policy was unevenly and weakly applied.

This economist points to two instances when fiscal policy was effective. One was during the winter of 1933–1934. This is when the federal government established the Civil Works Administration (CWA). In the span of three months, more than four million people were put to work on projects such as improving roads.

Another effective use of fiscal policy was the payment of a veteran’s bonus. Six years after World War I ended in 1918, U.S. veterans of the recent war were promised a bonus. The bonus would be paid in 1945. However, in 1932, a “Bonus Army” marched in Washington, D.C., to demand payment early. Finally, in 1936, Congress paid the bonus. The average payment was $547, which is roughly equivalent to $9,000 in today’s dollars. Production and employment were stimulated by the money pumped into the economy as 3.2 million veterans spent their bonus.

After the Civil War ended at Appomattox the Confederates returned to their homes broken in health and in fortune, but strong in their patriotic determination to begin all over again; which… would have succeeded quickly had it not been for the enemies of the South and the Yankee… politicians who lived by the misfortunes of the South. These swooped like vultures upon the patriotic, but misguided South.

About the time my parents removed from Kentucky to Texas, Limestone County was the center of the storm of Reconstruction. When the radical element in Congress overpowered the President… they gave the [vote] to the… ex-slaves and a few less worthy white renegades. The people of the county suffered from the abuse and domineering of the Carpetbaggers as white people have seldom suffered… we have… reconstructed and rebuilt that which we had lost. The black, along with the white people, suffered as they have not suffered since. There is told the story of many a black who was misled into trouble by the carpetbaggers, and renegade whites.

“The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.”
— Article IV, Section 4

A government of our own is our natural right. A person giving serious thought to human affairs will see that it is wiser and safer to create a constitution—in a cool, thoughtful manner, while we have the power—than to miss the opportunity now and gamble that it may come again in the future. If you oppose independence, you are really misguided. By keeping the seat of government empty, you are opening a door to endless oppression.

Thomas Jefferson was interested in the Louisiana Territory long before his presidency. Just after the Revolutionary War, he learned that British entrepreneurs were intending to fund an exploration of this territory. In response, he tried to organize a U.S. expedition through the region but was unsuccessful.

In April 1802, President Jefferson learned that France had signed a treaty with Spain to regain control of Louisiana. This worried Jefferson because many American goods passed through the port of New Orleans. He did not want to enter into an alliance with Britain to protect U.S. commercial interests.

Then in October 1802, France announced that the United States would not be allowed to use this port. Many Americans demanded a resolution of this issue, even if it meant going to war with France.

In response, President Jefferson secured funds to increase the size of the U.S. army and to build a naval fleet. He also instructed negotiators to offer France $10 million in exchange for New Orleans and part of the Floridas. When France offered to sell all of Louisiana, the negotiators accepted the offer, even though it went beyond their instructions.

In a message delivered to Congress in early 1918, President Wilson presented a program of fourteen points. Eight of the fourteen points addressed specific territorial issues among enemy nations. Five of the other six concerned general principles for a peaceful world: open treaties or agreements, freedom of the seas, free trade, reduction of weapons, and the adjustment of colonial claims based on the principles of self-determination. The fourteenth point proposed what was to become the League of Nations.